Austronesian Language Comparison

	Fire Mountain Presents

A Comparison of Austronesian Languages

Foreword

The Austronesian language group probably enjoyed the widest physical dispersion of a single language family prior to the European colonial expansion following Columbus. From the island of Madagascar, off the east coast of Africa, all the way to tiny, isolated Easter Island (Rapa Nui), and extending into Taiwan, Vietnam, Northern Australia, New Zealand and most of the Melanesian and Polynesian Islands, the languages in this single family show the common ancestry by the many cognates (words in common) present.
Today the single language from this family that is spoken by more than 210 million people is Bahasa Indonesia (meaning "The Language of Indonesia"). It is a modern language, based on the centuries-old lingua franca of the East Indian archipelago that comprises Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and parts of the Philippines. This is the region whose spices were sought by European explorers and trading companies -- the very thing that drove Columbus westward to accidentally find the New World that was inhabited by "Indians". The foundation of modern Indonesian is Malay as spoken on both sides of the Straits of Malacca (Selat Melaka). It was endorsed at the inception of the Indonesian Independence movement in the late 1920's, and became the official language of the Republic of Indonesia upon the Proclamation of Independence on 17 August 1945. Today Indonesia encompasses over 18 thousand islands of which perhaps some 6000 have permanent settlements.
Despite that, within Indonesia there are hundreds of regional languages, most of which are members of this Austronesian Language family. By browsing the list below you can see the striking similarities between some of the regional languages and their language cousins found many thousands of kilometers away in almost every direction that the monsoon winds blow.
Remarkably, right in the middle of this region, there exists another even richer language family, that of the Papuan Languages. These are found scattered among the inland valley tribes that inhabit present day Papua New Guinea and Indonesia's provinces of Irian Jaya, which cover the western half of the same island. The density of the rainforest and the rugged terrain have combined to keep tribes in almost complete isolation from one another, resulting in the world's greatest diversity of languages for such a small area (it is, in all fairness, the second largest island in the world, roughly the size of Turkey or 15% larger than Texas). It has been said that the Papuan languages on this island account for over 20% of the total number of languages still spoken in the world today.


Words	Languages	Orthography	References

The Words

These are the words that compare a very basic vocabulary from representative languages of the Austronesian language family. Some words illustrate a large number of cognates across many or all of the languages represented. Others illustrate that differences exist.

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 20 | 100 | 1000

me | you


Words	Languages	Orthography	References

The Languages

Indonesian: Formal language of Indonesia, adapted from Malay, which was the lingua franca of the East Indies for over a thousand years. Bahasa Indonesia was officially endorsed as the official language of the emerging independence movement in 1928, and became the official language upon independence from the Dutch in 1945. Its Dutch-based orthography was revised in 1972 when DJ and TJ pairs were dropped (among other improvements). The population of Indonesia is just over 200 million.
Javanese: This is the language of the central and eastern part of the island of Java. It is actually a multi-level language where the level spoken is in direct relationship to the social status or politeness required between the individual speakers. In the list below words capitalized are of the higher levels; all CAPS represent the highest level. There are three basic levels, but linguists have identified many more levels comprised of mixtures of vocabulary from adjacent levels according to the particular circumstance. Many words are based on Sanskrit and Kawi, which is an old literary language still used in the famous Wayang shadow puppet plays. This influence goes back to the Hindu and Buddhist period, roughly from the first to tenth centuries of the Christian era. Today approximately 65 million people speak Javanese.
Balinese: This is spoken on the island of Bali. Like Javanese, it is a multi-level language, and words listed below with capitalization are from the higher level. Its roots go back to Javanese, Kawi and Sanskrit since many Javanese Hindus fled to Bali when Islam began to take hold in Java.
Sundanese: Sunda is the westernmost third of the island of Java.
Madurese: Madura is the long, narrow island off the northern coast of eastern Java, very close to the port of Surabaya. The language spoken in Madura is related to Javanese, Malay and other languages from coastal groups on nearby islands, such as Makassar and Bugis people of Sulawesi.
Sawu: This small island lies directly south of the central part of Flores in the arc of islands that includes Sumba, Roti and Timor. There are about 25 languages in this sub-group, including those on Sumba, Roti, Timor, Komodo, and parts of Flores and Sumbawa. Sawu is a unique island in that it has historically been more populated than neighboring islands because its people have learned to avoid seasonal famines through cultivation of the lontar palm, Borassus flabelifer, whose nutricious juice could be consumed when all other food sources were unavailable. About 60000 people live on this island, which was visited by Captain James Cook in 1770 (although the Dutch had already established contact as early as 1648 and had a firm trade treaty when Cook arrived).
Toraja: This language (Toraja Sa'dan) is spoken in the interior of Sulawesi, from the popular tourist destination area called Tana Toraja ("Torajaland"). The people in this area are famous for their burial sites in cliffside caves. Their language is one of a fertile and relatively isolated inland valley culture which seems to have not needed a word for "island".
Acehnese: Acehnese is spoken along the coastal regions of the province of Aceh. There are also some numbers of Acehnese immigrants in Malaysia. Other languages spoken in the province of Aceh include Bahasa Kluet, Bahasa Gayo, Bahasa Alas, and Bahasa Tamiang (a variety of Malay). The indigenous name for Acehnese is 'Basa Ach.'
Tetun: Tetum, or Tetun, is one of about 26 languages spoken in East Timor, which is now an independent country. Tetun Praca or Tetun Dili has become a the dominant form throughout most of East Timor. It has also become one of only about four languages spoken in the Indonesian part on Timor Island that lies to the west of East Timor. It is difficult to say whether Tetun will have the linguistic strength to serve as an official language of the new government, since its vocabulary is noticeably thin for such needs.
Tagalog: This is the official language of the Philippines, but only one of many regional languages found on the hundreds of islands.
Hiligaynon: A regional language of the Philippines, Hiligaynon is the lingua franca of the Western Visayas, particularly in the region around Iloilo (Panay Island) but also in parts of Negros, Romblon. There are approximately 7 million speakers of Hiligaynon.

Maori: This is spoken by the Maori people of Aotearoa, which presently is known as New Zealand. Orthography: in the list below the appearance of a tilde ( ~ ) character indicates the preceeding vowel is lengthened.
Fijian: Another Polynesian language from the group of islands comprising Fiji. Despite striking similarities between certain Maori, Rapanui and Hawaii words in the list below, Fijian shows differences. Even between the extreme eastern and western Fijian islands there are significant differences that preclude mutual understanding, unless English or Standard Fijian are used.
Hawaiian: The indiginous language of the people of Hawaii, who are believed to have emigrated from the islands in and around the Philippines centuries ago. It is a phonetically minimized language, with only P, K, H, W, M, N, L, plus vocals and an important glottal stop.
Malagasy: This is spoken on the island of Madagascar, off the coast of Africa. It represents the westernmost member of the Austronesian language group. It has many influences from mainland African languages, but is classed as an Austronesian language by virtue of its overwhelmingy Austroesian vocabulary and structure.
Rapanui: This langauge is spoken by the approximately 2000 inhabitants of Easter Island (Rapa Nui), which is one of the most isolated inhabited islands in the world. It too is a member of the Austronesian Language Family, of the Polynesian branch.
If you wish to contribute one or more additional languages, please contact Fire Mountain by e-mail.


Words	Languages	Orthography	References

Orthography

( ' ) indicates a significant glottal stop (like "uh-uh" in English, which would be thusly notated as: uh'uh). This is found in Hawaiian, Madurese and Toraja orthographies, but is common in most Austronesian languages.

( ~ ) indicates the preceeding vowel is lengthened. This is found in some Maori words.

( ~ ) indicates a stress to the preceeding vowel. A few words in Tagalog may be marked as such.

Words with the first letter capitalized are polite forms used when speaking to elders and respected peers.

WORDS appearing in all capital letters are extreme polite forms and usually further distance the speakers socially or economically in languages such as Javanese and Balinese.

Words appearing inside double parenthises ((example)) are impolite or coarse, and would be used to emphasize a social gap by "speaking down", e.g., to mischevious children, or lax servants.

For Fijian only: b= mb ("number"), n = nd ("sender"), c = th ("those"), g = ng ("singer"), q = ngg (finger), j = ch ("choose"), v = w-v (a bilabial V).

For Achenese: eu is a single vowel, back high unrounded; it is not a diphthong. ô is more closed than the o.


Words	Languages	Orthography	References

The List

The compiler's comments appear in this color.
Clicking on a heading will take you back to the complete word list.
One

Indonesian: satu
Javanese: siji, Setunggal
Balinese: besik, Asiki
Sundanese: hiji, eka
Madurese: settong, tonggal
Sawu: ahi
Toraja: misa
Acehnese: sa
Tetun: ida
Tagalog: isa
Hiligaynon: isa
Maori: tahi, kotahi
Fijian: dua
Hawaiian: kahi
Malagasy: isa
Rapanui: tahi

Two
Indonesian: dua
Javanese: loro, Kalih
Balinese: dua, Kalih
Sundanese: duwe
Madurese: dua
Sawu: due
Toraja: dua
Acehnese: duwa
Tetun: rua
Tagalog: dalawa
Hiligaynon: duha
Maori: rua
Fijian: rua
Hawaiian: lua
Malagasy: roa
Rapanui: rua
Three
Indonesian: tiga
Javanese: telu, Tiga
Balinese: telu, Tiga
Sundanese: tilu
Madurese: tello
Sawu: tallu
Toraja: tallu
Acehnese: lhèe
Tetun: tolu
Tagalog: tatlo
Hiligaynon: tatlo
Maori: toru
Fijian: tolu
Hawaiian: kolu
Malagasy: telo
Rapanui: toru
Four
Indonesian: empat
Javanese: papat, Sekawan
Balinese: papat, Catur
Sundanese: opat
Madurese: empa
Sawu: apa
Toraja: a'pa'
Acehnese: peuet
Tetun: haot
Tagalog: apat
Hiligaynon: apat
Maori: wha
Fijian: va
Hawaiian: ha
Malagasy: efatra
Rapanui: ha
Five
Indonesian: lima
Javanese: lima, Gangsal
Balinese: lima, Panca
Sundanese: lima
Madurese: lema'
Sawu: lami
Toraja: lima
Acehnese: limong
Tetun: lima
Tagalog: lima
Hiligaynon: lima
Maori: rima
Fijian: lima
Hawaiian: lima
Malagasy: dimy
Rapanui: rima
Six
Indonesian: enam
Javanese: nem
Balinese: nem, nemnem, sad
Sundanese: genep
Madurese: enem
Sawu: anna
Toraja: annan
Acehnese: nam
Tetun: neen
Tagalog: anim
Hiligaynon: anum
Maori: ono
Fijian: ono
Hawaiian: ono
Malagasy: enina
Rapanui: ono
Seven
Indonesian: tujuh
Javanese: pitu
Balinese: pepitu, sapta
Sundanese:tujuh
Madurese: petto'
Sawu: pitu
Toraja: pitu
Acehnese: tujôh
Tetun: hitu
Tagalog: pito
Hiligaynon: pito
Maori: whitu
Fijian: vitu
Hawaiian: hiku
Malagasy: fito
Rapanui: hita
Eight
Indonesian: delapan
Javanese: wolu
Balinese: aktus, Astha
Sundanese:dalapan
Madurese: bellu'
Sawu: aru
Toraja: karura
Acehnese: lapan
Tetun: ualu
Tagalog: walo
Hiligaynon: walo
Maori: waru
Fijian: walu
Hawaiian: walu
Malagasy: valo
Rapanui: vau
Nine
Indonesian: sembilan
Javanese: sanga
Balinese: sia, asia, Sanga
Sundanese: salapan
Madurese: sanga'
Sawu: heo
Toraja: kasera
Acehnese: sikureueng
Tetun: sia
Tagalog: siyam
Hiligaynon: siyam
Maori: iwa
Fijian: ciwa
Hawaiian: iwa
Malagasy: sivy
Rapanui: iva
Ten
Indonesian: sepuluh
Javanese: sepuluh, Sedasa
Balinese: dasa, adasa
Sundanese: sapuluh
Madurese: sapolo
Sawu: henguru
Toraja: sang pulo
Acehnese: siplôh
Tetun: sanulu
Tagalog: sampu
Hiligaynon: pulo
Maori: tekau
Fijian: tini
Hawaiian: 'umi
Malagasy: folo
Rapanui: angahuru
Eleven
Indonesian: sebelas
Javanese: sewelas
Balinese: solas
Sundanese: sabeulas, sawelas
Madurese: sabelles
Sawu: henguru ahi
Toraja: sang pulo misa
Acehnese: siblah
Tetun: sanulu resin ida
Tagalog: labing isa
Hiligaynon: napulo kag isa
Maori: tekau ma tahi
Fijian: tini ka dua
Hawaiian: 'umi kumakahi
Malagasy: iray ambin'ny folo
Rapanui: ?
Twelve
Indonesian: duabelas
Javanese: rolas, Kalih Welas
Balinese: roras
Sundanese: dua belas
Madurese: du bellas
Sawu: henguru due
Toraja: sang pulo dua
Acehnese: duwa blah
Tetun: sanulu resin rua
Tagalog: labing delawa
Hiligaynon: napulo kag duha
Maori: tekau ma rua?
Fijian: tini ka rua
Hawaiian: 'umi kumalua
Malagasy: roa ambin'ny folo
Rapanui: ?
Twenty
Indonesian: dua puluh
Javanese: rong puluh, Kalih Dasa
Balinese: duang dasa
Sundanese: dua puluh
Madurese: dupolo
Sawu: due nguru
Toraja: duang pulo
Acehnese: duwa plôh
Tetun: ruanulu
Tagalog: dalawampu
Hiligaynon: duha ka pulo
Maori: rua tekau
Fijian: rua sagavulu
Hawaiian: iwakalua
Malagasy: roapolo
Rapanui: ?
One Hundred
Indonesian: seratus
Javanese: satus,
Balinese: satus
Sundanese: saratus
Madurese: saratos
Sawu: hengahu
Toraja: saratu'
Acehnese: sireutôh
Tetun: atus ida
Tagalog: isang daan
Hiligaynon: gatus (isa ka gatus)
Maori: rau, kotahi rau
Fijian: dua na drau
Hawaiian: hanele
Malagasy: zato
Rapanui: hanere
One Thousand
Indonesian: seribu
Javanese: sewu
Balinese: siu
Sundanese: sarebu
Madurese: saebu
Sawu: hetapa
Toraja: sang sa'bu
Acehnese: siribèe
Tetun: rihun ida
Tagalog: isang libo
Hiligaynon: libo (isa ka libo)
Maori: kotahi mano
Fijian: dua no udolu
Hawaiian: kaukani
Malagasy: arivo
Rapanui: piere
Me, I
Indonesian: saya, aku
Javanese: aku, Kula, DALEM
Balinese: icang, Titiang
Sundanese: urang, kuring, Abdi
Madurese: sengkok, Kaule, ABDINA
Sawu: ya
Toraja: aku
Acehnese: kèe, ulôn, ulôntuwan
Tetun: ha'u
Tagalog: ako
Hiligaynon: ako
Maori: au, ahau
Fijian: au/noqu
Hawaiian: a'u
Malagasy: izaho/ahy
Rapanui: au/kooku
You
Indonesian: kamu, engkau, Anda
Javanese: kowe, Panjenengan,
Balinese: cai, nyai, Ida, Dane, Iratu
Sundanese: maneh, Anjeuna (Anjeun)
Madurese: be'na, Sampiyan, Panjenengan (?)
Sawu: mu
Toraja: ((iko)), kamu
Acehnese: kah, gata, droeneuh
Tetun: o, ITA
Tagalog: ikaw
Hiligaynon: ikaw
Maori: koe
Fijian: iko/nomu
Hawaiian: 'oe
Malagasy: ianao/anao
Rapanui: koe/toau
Island

Indonesian: pulau
Javanese: pulo
Balinese: nusa, pulau
Sundanese: pulau, nusa
Madurese: polo, daret
Sawu: rai
Toraja: (no word apparently exists for island)
Acehnese: pulo
Tetun: nusa, illa
Tagalog: pulo~, isla
Hiligaynon: polo, isla
Maori: motu
Fijian: yanu-yanu
Hawaiian: moku, mokupuni, moku 'aina
Malagasy: nosy
Rapanui: motu

Sea
Indonesian: laut, lautan, samudra
Javanese: segara
Balinese: pasih, Segara
Sundanese: laut, sagara
Madurese: tasek, sagare
Sawu: lau
Toraja: tasik
Acehnese: laôt
Tetun: tasi
Tagalog: dagat
Hiligaynon: dagat
Maori: moana
Fijian: wai tui (literally "king water")
Hawaiian: kai, moana
Malagasy: ranomasina (literally "salty water"?)
Rapanui: vai kava (literally "salty water")
Water
Indonesian: air
Javanese: banyu, Toya
Balinese: yeh, Tirta, Toya
Sundanese: cai
Madurese: aing
Sawu: ai (the same word is used for fire and water!)
Toraja: uai
Acehnese: ie
Tetun: bee
Tagalog: tubig
Hiligaynon: tubig
Maori: wai
Fijian: wai
Hawaiian: wai
Malagasy: rano
Rapanui: vai
Fish

Indonesian: ikan
Javanese: iwak
Balinese: be, Mina, Ulam
Sundanese: lauk, ikan
Madurese: juko'
Sawu: nadu'u
Toraja: bale
Acehnese: eungkôt
Tetun: ikan
Tagalog: isda
Hiligaynon: isda
Maori: ika
Fijian: ika
Hawaiian: i'a
Malagasy: tsondro
Rapanui: ika

Snake

Indonesian: ular
Javanese: ula
Balinese: lelipi, Ula
Sundanese: oray
Madurese: olar
Sawu: doboho
Toraja: ula'
Acehnese: uleue
Tetun: samea
Tagalog: ahas
Hiligaynon: man-ug, bitin
Maori: neke (not indigenous, an alliteration)
Fijian: gata
Hawaiian: ---
Malagasy: bibilava, menarana
Rapanui: ?

Bird
Indonesian: burung
Javanese: manuk, Peksi
Balinese: kedis, Peksi
Sundanese: manuk
Madurese: mano
Sawu: dowila
Toraja: dassi
Acehnese: cicèm
Tetun: manu, fuik
Tagalog: ibon
Hiligaynon: pispis
Maori: manu
Fijian: manu-manu vuka
Hawaiian: manu
Malagasy: vorona
Rapanui: manu
Dog
Indonesian: anjing
Javanese: asu, Segawon
Balinese: cicing, Asu
Sundanese: anjing
Madurese: pate'
Sawu: ngaka
Toraja: asu
Acehnese:
Tetun:
Tagalog: asu
Hiligaynon:
Maori: kuri~
Fijian: koli
Hawaiian: 'ilio
Malagasy: alika
Rapanui: 'uri
Flower
Indonesian: bunga
Javanese: kembang, Sekar
Balinese: bunga, Sekar
Sundanese: kembang, kusuma
Madurese: kembang, Sekar
Sawu: bunga
Toraja: bunga
Acehnese: bungong
Tetun: ai funan
Tagalog: bulaklak
Hiligaynon: bulak
Maori: pua
Fijian: senikau
Hawaiian: pua
Malagasy: vonikazo
Rapanui: tiare
Fruit

Indonesian: buah
Javanese: woh
Balinese: buah, Woh
Sundanese: buah
Madurese: buwe
Sawu: wue
Toraja:
Acehnese: boh
Tetun: ai funan
Tagalog: prutas [Spanish], bungang-kahoy
Hiligaynon: prutas, bunga
Maori: hua
Fijian: vuanikau ("kau"= "tree")
Hawaiian: hua
Malagasy: voankazo
Rapanui:

Coconut
Indonesian: kelapa
Javanese: krambil, klapa
Balinese: nyuh, Kelapa
Sundanese: kalapa
Madurese: nyior
Sawu: nyiu
Toraja: kaluku
Acehnese: u
Tetun: nuu
Tagalog: buko
Hiligaynon: niyog, lubi, buko, makapuno
Maori: kokonaiti, kokonata (not indigenous, an alliteration)
Fijian: niu
Hawaiian: niu
Malagasy: coco
Rapanui:
Banana
Indonesian: pisang
Javanese: gedhang, Pisang
Balinese: biu, Pisang
Sundanese: cau
Madurese: geddhang
Sawu: womu'u
Toraja: punti
Acehnese: pisang
Tetun: hudi
Tagalog: saging
Hiligaynon: saging
Maori: maika
Fijian: jaina
Hawaiian: mai'a
Malagasy: akondro
Rapanui: maika
Fire
Indonesian: api
Javanese: geni, Latu
Balinese: api, Geni
Sundanese: seuneu
Madurese: apoy
Sawu: ai (the same word is used for fire and water!)
Toraja: api
Acehnese: apuy
Tetun: ahi
Tagalog: apoy
Hiligaynon: kalayo
Maori: ahi
Fijian: buka
Hawaiian: ahi
Malagasy: afo
Rapanui: ahi
Mountain
Indonesian: gunung
Javanese: giri, gunung
Balinese: gunung, giri
Sundanese: gunung
Madurese: gunong
Sawu: lede
Toraja: buntu
Acehnese: glè
Tetun: foho
Tagalog: bundok
Hiligaynon: bukid
Maori: maunga
Fijian: ulunivanua
Hawaiian: mauna
Malagasy: vohitra
Rapanui: maunga
Sun
Indonesian: matahari (mentari) (mata = eye, hari = day)
Javanese: srengenge, Surya
Balinese: matanai, Surya
Sundanese: panonpoe
Madurese: are
Sawu: mada loto
Toraja: allo
Acehnese: mata uroe
Tetun: loro
Tagalog: araw
Hiligaynon: adlaw
Maori: ra~
Fijian: siga (matanisiga, matanivanua)
Hawaiian: la
Malagasy: masoandro (maso = eye, andro = day)
Rapanui: ra'a
Moon
Indonesian: bulan
Javanese: rembulan, Wulan
Balinese: bulan, Sasih
Sundanese: bulan, Sasih
Madurese: bulen
Sawu: waru
Toraja: bulan
Acehnese: buleuen
Tetun: fulan
Tagalog: buwan
Hiligaynon: bulan
Maori: marama
Fijian: vula
Hawaiian: mahina
Malagasy: volana
Rapanui: mahina
Star
Indonesian: bintang
Javanese: lintang
Balinese: bintang
Sundanese: bentang
Madurese: bintang
Sawu: moto
Toraja: bintoen
Acehnese: bintang
Tetun: fitun
Tagalog: tala
Hiligaynon: bitu-on
Maori: whetu~
Fijian: kalo-kalo
Hawaiian: hoku
Malagasy: kintana
Rapanui: hetu'u
Person (M\F)
Indonesian: orang
Javanese: wong, Tiyang
Balinese: jlema-jatma, Anak
Sundanese: jalma, jelema
Madurese: oreng
Sawu: dau
Toraja: tau
Acehnese: ureueng
Tetun: ema
Tagalog: tao
Hiligaynon: tawo
Maori: tangata, koroke~
Fijian: tamata
Hawaiian: kanaka, mea, kama
Malagasy: olona
Rapanui: tangata\vi'e


Words	Languages	Orthography	References

Sources & Links

Indonesian: numerous sources.

Javanese: Sri Rahmawati Weisling (Solo, Indonesia -- my wife).

Balinese: Andrew Toth (Bali, Indonesia).

Sundanese:

Madurese: Arif Suratman (Surabaya, Indonesia)
Also, the above five languages together: Ir. Sugiarto et al., Kamus Indonesia - Daerah, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta 1993. (This five-language dictionary contains, regrettably, numerous errors.)

Sawu: Benyamin Lebe (born and raised on Sawu, now living in Solo, Indonesia).

Toraja: Angela Spilsbury (Rantepao, Sulawesi, Indonesia).

Acehnese: Mark Durie, Dept. of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, Univ. of Melbourne

Tetun: Geoffrey Hull, "Standard Tetum-English Dictionary." Allen & Unwin, publ., Sydney.

Tagalog: Paula Angeles and website.

Hiligaynon: Horst Ibelgaufts

Maori: Kimi Kupu Hou Lexical Database*, Manuhuia Barcham

Fijian: Valerie Nayacakalou and website.

Hawaiian: Hawaiian On-Line Dictionary*

Malagasy: Andry Rakotonirainy.

Rapanui: Adam Dobrzycki.

Other contributions: Waruno Mahdi, & Dr. dr. Bulantrisna Djelantik.
* Web site with on-line searchable dictionary
Get more info on the entire Austronesian langauge family from the Summer Institute of Linguistics.